EU Drug Market: Methamphetamine

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‘EU Drug Market: Methamphetamine’ describes the European methamphetamine market from production and trafficking, to distribution and use. It details the processes, materials and players involved at different stages and levels of the market. The module takes a threat assessment approach, identifying the key issues and defining recommendations for action at EU and Member State level.

This resource is a module of EU Drug Markets: In-depth analysis, the fourth comprehensive overview of illicit drug markets in the European Union by the EMCDDA and Europol.

Last update: 6 May 2022

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Methamphetamine plays a relatively small role in European stimulant drug markets when compared with the global situation. However, at the end of 2019, an EMCDDA-Europol joint threat assessment concluded that after a period of relative stability, the threat posed by methamphetamine appeared to be increasing as the drug spread to new markets elsewhere in Europe. Despite the unprecedented disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, over the past two years, the methamphetamine situation in the European Union (EU) has continued to evolve. As well as producing methamphetamine to supply European markets, Europe is a source of the drug for external markets. In addition, Europe is a destination and transit zone for methamphetamine produced in other production hubs, such as Iran, Nigeria and, more recently, Mexico. Meanwhile, the development of methamphetamine production capacity in Afghanistan, the main source of Europe’s heroin supply, poses a potential threat to the EU, given the long-established trafficking routes that exist for Afghan opioids.

In most European countries, methamphetamine is much less commonly used than amphetamine or cocaine. Historically, consumption has been concentrated in central Europe, mainly Czechia and Slovakia. However, recent years have seen increases in use in other countries and regions. In some Member States and consequently in EU-level datasets, it is not possible to distinguish between amphetamine and methamphetamine, presenting challenges for constructing an accurate picture; in these cases, the generic term ‘amphetamines’ is often used.

When using the term ‘methamphetamine’, we are really referring to methamphetamine hydrochloride, a crystalline solid that is soluble in water. In methamphetamine powder, finely ground crystals of methamphetamine hydrochloride are mixed with other ingredients, such as lactose, dextrose or caffeine. The powder may be ingested, snorted or less commonly dissolved and injected. Large white or translucent crystals of methamphetamine hydrochloride suitable for smoking, known as ‘ice’ or ‘crystal meth’, are also available. While the crystal form of the drug and the route of its administration is not commonly reported by surveys of users in Europe, it is important that practitioners and policymakers actively monitor this phenomenon as it can be linked to important health and social consequences.

For an historical background of methamphetamine, see the ‘Historical background’ section in the EMCDDA-Europol threat assessment report ‘Methamphetamine in Europe’ (EMCDDA and Europol, 2019).

Methamphetamine is reported to be the most widely consumed synthetic stimulant drug in the world. Europe remains a relatively small market compared to Asia, North America and Australia, where more than a quarter of people in drug treatment are being treated for amphetamine-type stimulant use disorder (which includes the use of methamphetamine).

Globally, more than 70 % of all amphetamines seized in 2019 was methamphetamine (325 tonnes), with seizures doubling over the preceding five years. Almost all of the illicit synthetic drug laboratories reported to the UNODC between 2015 and 2019 were related to methamphetamine. Trends and analysis suggest there has been a shift to fewer laboratories with higher production capacity and that the manufacturing process has become increasingly complex.

The illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in east and south-east Asia is concentrated in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, while the North American market is served by large-scale production in Mexico, or through small-scale facilities in Canada and the United States. Other manufacturing zones include Afghanistan, Iran and West Africa.

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From 2010 to 2020, the quantity of methamphetamine reported seized in the EU increased by 477 %, with long-term trends pointing to market expansion. The main methamphetamine production sites in the EU are located in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Czechia and neighbouring countries.

In 2020, several large-scale methamphetamine production facilities were dismantled in Belgium and the Netherlands, and recent indications point to cooperation between Mexican and European drug producers. Mexican criminal networks have also been involved in trafficking large quantities of methamphetamine from Mexico to Europe. An important development has also been noted in Afghanistan, where methamphetamine production has been increasing. Record-breaking amounts of methamphetamine, believed to be of Afghan origin, have been seized along pre-EU parts of existing heroin trafficking routes. This development raises the threat of methamphetamine supply to the EU from this direction.

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In Europe, two main methamphetamine production methods exist. One method is based on ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, mostly used in small- to mid-medium-scale laboratories in and around Czechia, and is difficult to scale up. The other method uses BMK, an oil imported to or made in Europe from chemicals known as designer precursors or pre-precursors. This method is used in industrial-scale laboratories, as observed in the Netherlands and Belgium. Recent reports suggest that BMK-based laboratories have increased their efficiency and output by reprocessing waste products to obtain greater quantities of potent methamphetamine.

In 2020, seven EU Member States seized a large amount of BMK and an even larger amount of pre-precursor chemicals, which could be used to produce significant amounts of BMK. Synthetic drug producers develop new designer precursors as controls are introduced, exposing the weaknesses of the control regime.

Synthetic drug production can be dangerous to humans, with fatalities recorded in drug production laboratories in recent years, while dumping sites cause environmental damage.

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Criminal networks active in methamphetamine production and trafficking in the EU rapidly adapt to regulatory changes aimed at curbing the methamphetamine trade. This includes circumventing legislative controls and adapting to the availability of precursors.

Large-scale production of methamphetamine in the EU is often facilitated by an international network providing access to logistical and transport infrastructure. The trade is fragmented, reliant on services of brokers that connect logistics suppliers, methamphetamine producers, transporters or distributors.

Logistic support has become a parallel criminal business, with some groups specialised in providing precursors, related chemicals and equipment necessary for synthetic drug production. Occasionally, parallel networks deliver the full package needed to set up and operate production facilities.

While the majority of methamphetamine for EU markets is seemingly supplied by European producers, large-scale trafficking of methamphetamine from Mexico to the EU, most likely in transit to non-EU markets, also takes place. Such smuggling is believed to be largely based on concealment in legitimate goods transported in maritime shipping containers.

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Data on the retail price of methamphetamine in Europe are limited. For countries with recent data there is a considerable range, as prices per gram go from EUR 13.50 in Hungary to EUR 113 in Cyprus. Some of the price disparity is related to the type of methamphetamine, with powder usually being cheaper than crystal methamphetamine. Analysis of darknet data reveals that the typical price paid is EUR 55 per gram.

Wholesale price data is also limited. In Czechia, 1 kilogram of locally produced methamphetamine costs between EUR 18 900 and EUR 21 200. Meanwhile, Dutch law enforcement reports that the wholesale price of methamphetamine dropped by almost 40 %, from an average of EUR 12 750 in 2019 to EUR 7 675 per kilogram in 2020.

Interpreting methamphetamine purity data is challenging because it is not always reported whether samples are of powder or crystal methamphetamine. In countries where powder methamphetamine is the main product, the average purities are generally lower than in countries where crystal methamphetamine predominates.

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Monitoring the methamphetamine market in the EU is complicated by the different forms of the drug available and patterns of use. While methamphetamine use in Europe is concentrated in Czechia and Slovakia, there are signals of increasing use in some countries where it has been less common. Work to assess the impact of COVID-19 has also suggested that methamphetamine use may have become more popular in some user groups.

An increase in reported methamphetamine possession or use offences was observed between 2015 and 2020. While the number of such reported cases dropped in most EU Member States in 2020, this may in part be explained due to shifting law enforcement priorities in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Estimating the size of the overall EU retail methamphetamine market is difficult, as in some countries it is not possible to separate methamphetamine from amphetamine in the relevant datasets. Due to data availability, a country-level estimate of the retail market in Czechia has been possible, where demand-based estimates point to a retail market of EUR 181 million.

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The global developments related to the production and trafficking of methamphetamine pose the threat that the substance becomes more available in Europe, bringing with it a complex set of health and security problems.

At the strategic level, four priority areas emerge.

To respond to the current and future threats, the following actions are required.

© EMCDDA, Europol, 2022For further information on copyright and reuse, please see our legal notice.

Methodology: Read more about the methodology used to collect data for this analysis.

References: Consult the list of references used in this resource.

Abbreviations: Consult the list of acronyms and other abbreviations used in this resource.

Photo credits: Introduction, Key findings and threat assessment, Global context, Criminal networks, Actions to address current threats (istockphoto.com). Europe as a producer, Main production methods (Belgian Federal Police). Prices and purities, Signals of spreading use (Netherlands Forensic Institute).

Recommended citation: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction and Europol (2022), EU Drug Market: Methamphetamine — In-depth analysis, https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/eu-drug-markets/methamphetami….

Identifiers: Catalogue number: TD-01-22-355-EN-Q | ISBN: 978-92-9497-739-7 | DOI: 10.2810/67042

EMPACT: Fighting crime together

The European Multidisciplinary Platform Against Criminal Threats (EMPACT) tackles the most important threats posed by organised and serious international crime affecting the EU. EMPACT strengthens intelligence, strategic and operational cooperation between national authorities, EU institutions and bodies, and international partners. EMPACT runs in four-year cycles focusing on common EU crime priorities. This EU Drug Market analysis was produced by the EMCDDA and Europol with the support of the EU Member States and features in the operational action plans of EMPACT.